Critically examine what is meant by natural moral law Essay

The doctrine of natural law has its deepest foundations from Greek philosopher Aristotle but upholds the strongest dictation in the writings of Thomas Aquinas (1225-1274). The underlying ethical basis of Roman Catholicism also stems from his writings based around the premise that God created all things ‘good’. This includes man, the highest aspect of his creation of whom he made in his own image; â€Å"Then God said: â€Å"let us make man in our own image, in our likeness, let them (man and women) rule over the fish in the sea the birds in the air, over livestock, over all earth, and over all the creatures that move along the ground†. One of the major aspects of natural law is the concept that everything and everyone is made with a predetermined purpose. And the starting point of all advocates of natural law is to work out this purpose akin to human life. Following ones rationale, Aquinas claims, leads us to a realisation of our ‘purpose’- reason is used to find out Gods intention and the purpose of human existence and this will enable one to arrive at the principles of natural law. Focusing firstly on the word ‘natural’, it is synonymous with reason. Contrary to what one may assume ‘natural’ does not mean our natural predispositions or inclinations but rather mans ability to reason. In fact natural law is founded upon mans ability to reason. Aquinas considered that natural law was the moral code which humans are naturally inclined towards. In his work Aquinas established three ideals that should govern our moral principles it is comprised of precepts of the eternal law that govern the behaviour of beings possessing reason and free will. The first precept of the natural law, according to Aquinas, is the somewhat vacuous imperative to be good and avoid evil. Here it is worth noting that Aquinas holds a natural law theory of morality: what is good and evil, according to Aquinas, is derived from the rational nature of human beings. Good and evil are thus both objective and universal He argued that mans first priority laid down by natural law was self preservation and that on the basis of this first axiom man puts forward the ideal that life is to be preserved. Thus man has an empathic desire to respect and preserve life beyond his own. If man gives in to non-rational desires or ‘apparent goods’ as Aquinas so calls them then one becomes imprisoned. According to Aquinas if we follow our rationale it would lead to a perfect moral state†¦ which lives up, not only to one of the bibles most salient features, but a principle which Christ himself promulgates in his teachings, â€Å"Love your neighbour as yourself†. It upholds what one can identify as natural virtues- prudence, temperance, and justice. Procreation is the second ideal of which Aquinas quotes so strongly as a moral code. This way of thinking corresponds well with the teachings of St Paul. It is not merely sex to make children but the whole ethical side that goes with it. For instance it is not promiscuity that they denote but monogamy. They believe that it is the only successful way of procreation of the species. Otherwise there would be a generations of dysfunctional relationships. It leads to an ordered society. St Paul exhorts the Corinthians, â€Å"†¦Each man should have his own wife and each woman her own husband. The husband should fulfil his marital duty to his wife and likewise the wife to her husband. The wife’s body does not belong to her alone but also to her husband. In the same way the husband’s body does not only belong to him but to his wife.† (Corinthians ch6 v 2-4) Lastly the significance of faith in God has considerable significance in his writings. Unlike some philosophers that share similar ideas to Aquinas, he did not consider that human nature was totally corrupted. He suggested that the ultimate function of reason leads us to postulate the existence of a creator i.e. God. To find completeness one must listen to ones reason where one will find a spiritual union with God. This will naturally project all things moral. Having identified the three main functions that Aquinas establishes within natural law it would be of importance to go on to identify other key aspects. Firstly I would be inclined to recognize what Aquinas referred to as ‘apparent goods’. Apparent good is a term given to an action, which on the face of it appears to be a ‘good’ action but actually isn’t. Reason enlightens man of the peculiarity between good and evil. Man is subject to temptation because of our ancestral history; Adam and Eve. From this we as a human race can be seduced by ungodly desires (apparent goods). An apparent good can pervert reason. For instance, one may feel good taking drugs and drinking heavily but really it is self destructive and perverted from reason, which tells us that it is not good to take drugs or drink heavily. Reason links in well here; good intentions stem from good will and good will is the product of mans reason. If we listen to our reason it exemplifies that good outcomes cannot be the gilding light to morality†¦if we concentrate on good outcomes it may lead to the perusing of apparent goods. An example could be a bomb that’s about to explode. Does one torture the terrorist captured to save the lives of a whole community or stand by the premise of the rule not to torture? Torturing the terrorist is an example of an apparent good or a secondary ideal (a primary ideal being the three ideals established at the beginning of essay). It promises an immediate benefit, but the act itself is degrading an immoral. Natural law would dictate that torture is irrational and goes against the first ideal to preserve the lives of others. One can start to picture the difficulties with natural law- does one let a whole community die for the exception of the torture of one man? Mans purpose is not follow apparent goods! The ironic concept is, is that natural law claims if one follows one reason and purpose at all times then it will achieve a morally just world! This is because if purpose isn’t reversed then there is no chance of apparent goods. Examples could include abortion, euthanasia or even homosexuality (!) Which all go against one of the three ideals. Previously mentioned was that of the word ‘purpose’. Purpose to Aquinas was the assumption that everyone has a divinely devised purpose in life. According to Aquinas reason can illustrate this but only faith assures man of his choices. God did not make man like robots to merely choose the ‘right’ thing but if he listens to his reason, there will be an unavoidable tendency towards goodness. â€Å"All beings tend towards the actualisation of the potentialities of their natures† Simply, if we follow what reason dictates we will, ‘strive to fulfil are particular gifts’. St Paul in his letters to the Romans stated also that we have particular gifts and that we should follow them. He uses the idea of prophesising; if ones gift if prophesising then let him use it in proportion to ones faith. If ones gift is to teach then teach†¦.and so one. The problem is of course what happens when one thinks their eschatology is that of an ‘ apparent good’? They might consider that their personal goals are that of power or like the suicide bombers think that their eschatology is to end their live ion aid of attacking the enemy. Obviously here we have a perversion of ones eschatology. Natural law claims that reason illustrates to us their limitations. ‘Apparent goods’ are destructive to one and others and disgrace or degrade man. So the question arises that why do so many of us follow an ‘apparent good’? Aquinas would argue that it is in opens weak nature that it is far easier to follow what one desires and gets pleasure out of, and once tempted, one is stuck in the intoxication. 2) analyse and evaluate the strengths and weaknesses of natural law as a definitive ethical theory. The premise of natural law states that morality is based on reason alone, but surely if we look around us it is actually based on our emotions? David Hume (1713-1776) was a philosopher that disagreed with the notion that morality is based on reason alone. As we have seen, Aquinas believed that natural law was synonymous with mans reason; Hume powerfully argued that if this is so then why do people have such a diverse perception of what is right and wrong, good and bad? Surely if morality is reason based then we would all have the same ideas of what is good and bad? If, as Aquinas believed, morality is based on reason then why is it that in a moral predicament we actually act on our emotions? For instance if one is in a crash and one has an option to save ones child or a doctor that is about to crack a cure for cancer, which is one likely to choose? I would say that 99% of mothers and fathers would go against what reason dictates and save the life of their child. I would also question the fact that if morality derives from reason then it should comprise of a set of ‘a prori’ rules that should be completely universalised. Why is it then that we invent these ‘rule’ and find excuses to break them or even feel it is moral to break them? For instance, if we have a rule or a secondary ideal as Aquinas would put it, that is ‘do not steal’ should it be applied even when it seems hell of a lot more moral to break it. If there is an axe murderer who is going to use his weapon to kill someone, to break the rule ‘does not steal’ to get his weapon seems totally incoherent. According to natural law however, the rule ‘do not steal’ should be universalised and therefore never broken. Aquinas did come up with an idea of proportionalism. Proportanalism states that when there is a proportionate reason to break a rule i.e. to get the weapon off an axe murderer then it is ok to do so. I feel as though this is a complete cop out. In effect he is coming up with a set of rules that have to be universalised and they are based on reason, and then comes up with a set of excuses or exceptions when it doesn’t work! Natural law assumes that we have a ‘uniform’ human nature, â€Å"god made man in his own image’ Genesis 1:27. Basically, this conjures up the supposition that if we humans were all created in the same way then realistically we should all therefore be able to identify what our purposes are. Our sexual organs are formed for procreation, thus, homosexuality becomes unnatural. The question is who is Aquinas to delegate what is purposeful? One could go as far to say does man as a whole have a purpose? Philosophers such as Neitche or Sartre that would greatly disagree with Aquinas and human nature. Their ideas are governed by existentialism, which entails that there is no fixed human nature that man has no purpose, life has no broader meaning. The only reality is the chooses that we make; indeed, these choices are spontaneous and individual. They do not delve into the concept any of these choices are rules that should be universalised. If one looks at society today it really has been influenced by such proposal, and we are unsympathetic to the idea that we have a fixed human nature and fixed purposes. Because there is this idea of no human nature there can consequently be nothing unnatural, so inevitably homosexuality and such like is not a problem. Aquinas is compelled with the idea that we are made from a purposeful creating benevolent creator. He presupposes that faith in such being will lead to utter moral peace and satisfaction, and will lead to a perfect moral society. The problem is, is that in contemporary society the popular assumption is that there is no god or it is questioning such conceptions. We are broadly agnostic. Many people’s lives run without orientation to god or religion, thus emasculating the natural law theory. Essentially what is being said is do we necessitate god to feel moral or spiritually whole. Can we be moral without religion? According to many, indeed we can. Aquinas postulated that we can exist morally without god but would lack the assertion of his moral choices prone to doubt and temptation. Whether morality requires god is inconclusive from a reason based argument. There is a predicament also with Aquinas’s idea of purpose. For instance he postulates that that the main function of genital organs are for procreation and therefore denounces homosexuality, masturbation or even the enjoyment of sex! However, in observation bodily organs generally have many a function. Mouths are not just for eating but also for kissing, talking†¦they are limitless. So why does he adopt a denunciation to the sex between homosexuals? It seems contradictory and inconsistent. Thus, I would say that he is imposing his desires and claiming that these are the basis of morality or these are what reason dictates to us. His views on purpose are limited and could be completely different to what he considers- all in all why does he hypothesize what our purposes is. When looking at the strengths of the natural law approach one finds that they seem to be born from the limitations of the weaknesses. Firstly there might actually be human nature despite existentialist beliefs to the contrary. For instance, we are all filled with horror at murder or child abuse. Of course there are always exceptions to the general rule such as suicide bombers who kill themselves and others but what one stating is that human nature is an open question. Some humanist’s may believe in human nature like Dawkins or Russell who say we all want to belong to a ‘herd’. It suggests that we have something in common we interact with others. Aquinas said that spiritual completeness is only synonymous in union with god. Although a large percentage of the population are secular, I would say that it is true that most of us still don’t like to think of the end as being nothingness. There is a desire to believe in something beyond bodily death. The existence of so many religions seem to prove this point. It could be looked upon like this; are we, as Sartre says condemned to be free, or does existence really have an underlying purpose and meaning? Like I mentioned earlier, we now live in a secular age. However we cant seem to get away from ‘god’ or ‘gods’. We basically invent gods like science and medicine. Surely this seems to indicate that our existence requires some foundation beyond our own means? In regards to ‘apparent goods’ Aquinas claims that they are self destructive despite the ‘miracle’ cures of modern society. The questions arises that will society ever create an earthly paradise where all pleasures are catered for. Will we ever make the ‘paradise’ that temps us away from reasoning or will we find that it’s not enough. It would be that if paradise can never be created then it reinforces the idea of ‘apparent goods’ In conclusion I would be inclined not to follow natural law. Although it raises many valuable and appraisable points (after all it does strive for what’s moral) I feel as though it is far too orthodox and strict for my liking. It seems to have too much of Aquinas’s desires and seems irrelevant for today’s society. As a definitive ethical theory I suggest that it doesn’t uphold what I would determine or expect a definitive ethical theory to be. I feel it has too many gaps that have un suggestive answers, the fact that it hasn’t made me feel as though I can relate to it as a moral theory says it all.

Human Resources Strategic Plan Essay

The Human Resources Department (HR) developed a strategic plan that tackles strategies to support the overall goals and objectives of The ABC Services Agency (ABC). In this report, the strategic HR planning process along with the mission, vision and goals of ABC will be discussed. The proposed HR strategy, which is named Diversity Program, will be explored by looking into elements including costs, benefits and outcomes. The main focus of this report is on attracting and retaining qualified direct care staff. Executive Summary ABC, founded in 1961, is a volunteer parent support group that provides support services to children and adults with disabilities. Furthermore, it provides them and their families with assistance and support from birth to senior years. ABC is committed to support people with disabilities through job placements, residential support, respite care, social activities and vocational training. ABC also tries to incorporate disabled people into the community through education and by working with many volunteers and donors. ABC’s 20-year vision is full acceptance and inclusion by the community. In addition, ABC aims to improve its services, support systems and technology. The mission is all about â€Å"achieving full community life for children and adults with disability, one person at the time.† The goals are divided into two dimensions—achieving and full community life. â€Å"Achieving† refers to ensuring individuals are given opportunities to experience their own potential. â€Å"Full community life† focuses on families, friends, colleagues and other valued relationships to create a joyful and fulfilled life. To accomplish this mission, ABC operates according to essential values that complete the heart of the organisation. Some of these values include a caring attitude, responsiveness, respectfulness, partnership, financial sustainability and diversity. ABC also has a strong belief that all people have equal rights, strengths and assets. Other beliefs include positive  difference, the same opportunities for people with disability, the difference that valuable member and motivated staff could make and the importance of family role. In the next five years, ABC will approach a leadership role in working with a broader array of community resources. It will also explore the feasibility of actively engaging volunteers. Moreover, ABC has set up goals that are based on important issues found by the previous strategic planning process. These goals are relevant to work week opportunities (e.g. employment and day supports), recreation and leisure activities, residential support (e.g. community living and participation) and family support and education. Strategic Human Resources Planning To convey ABC’s mission, HR developed the following main objectives: ABC improves its capacity to attract and retain qualified direct care staff; All staff thoroughly understands the meaning of the mission and how their job contributes to achieving it; A professional development program is implemented to strengthen and expand the supervisory and management capacity and opportunities among mid-level managers; and A professional development program is implemented to strengthen and expand the capacity of direct support staff to be community liaisons and successfully integrate the consumer they support into the community (Managance Consulting, 2015). This report focuses on the first objective, which is to attract and retain qualified direct care staff. Through a strategic planning process, HR was able to set three sub-objectives to achieve the four main objectives relative to the organisation’s mission. Firstly, HR aims to increase the organisation’s visibility in the community by updating the communication plan and utilising strategic communication to attract potential employees and volunteers and facilitate their recruitment. Secondly, HR intends to increase the number of volunteers by 50% through volunteer programs, training, leadership development and recognition. Lastly, HR plans to increase the amount of contributions that support the operating budget even  more. This will be done through fundraising, which is ultimately essential for any non-profit organisation (Managance Consulting, 2015). Strategic Human Resources Planning Process HR aims to develop a stable, highly qualified and motivated workforce that actively advocates ABC’s mission. While it remains positive about the outcomes of the plan, HR is aware of the gaps that lie between ABC’s current and future state. These gaps include significant growth that led to challenges to human resources, difficulty with supervision, lack of structure for coordination among departments and inconsistent administrative and clerical support as shown in the image below. Figure 1. Gaps between ABC’s current and future state. To address these current issues for a better future, HR is going to implement new practices. A diversity program in the forms of interest groups will be established. These interest groups include the following: Cooking Club Singing & Dancing Club Moms Club LGBTF Club Figure 2. Diversity program’s interest groups. Each of these interest groups will be discussed in the latter part of the report. PESTEL Analysis To develop a well-informed, strategic plan, the external environment that ABC operates in was analysed. With this PESTEL analysis, various external environmental factors that can impact ABC were identified and understood. Hence, HR is equipped to monitor any changes that may influence ABC’s performance. Political Analysis ABC’s day-to-day operations and future decisions can be affected by different government policies such as taxation policy and delivering community service policy. In that regard, ABC, like all other organisations, must comply with certain rules and regulations to ensure survival. While strict compliance with the law is required, government initiatives and political infrastructures also need to be taken into consideration. Government initiatives may have an effect on ABC’s performance relative to employment and unemployment rates. Some of the political ambitions of the government may provide ABC with employment opportunities, while others may lead to retrenchment or attrition. This is something that ABC needs to be fully prepared for. The same concept applies to existing and forthcoming political infrastructures in the forms of transportation systems and skyscrapers. All these political factors must be taken into account to avoid negative publicity and potential fines (Business Case Studies LLP, 2015). Economic Analysis Like other organisations, ABC aims for profit maximisation. To strive toward this particular goal, economic elements such as economic growth, banking, employment, income, general price level, interest rate, inflation and recession need to be analysed. Among all these elements, economic growth, which leads to development, is the most important one as it dictates the volume of finances that the society as a whole is earning and investing. To keep up with the demands of a diverse economy, ABC must be as proactive as possible (K, 2013). Being proactive extends toward being aware of the other economic factors. Banking, which is interconnected with money, can affect ABC in terms of borrowing capacity and purchasing power. Banking policies and facilities can  influence the borrowing capacity of both ABC and the people. Furthermore, money and its circulation can dictate the purchasing power of the customers (K, 2013). Employment density and income rate can also impact ABC’s operations. During an economic surge, the number of employment opportunities, which generate income, increases. This upturn provides people with a stronger purchasing power. On the other hand, as the economy goes downward, the purchasing power of the people also shrinks (K, 2013). General Price level is another economic factor that can influence the growth of ABC. Cost of resources, cost of production, cost of labour and cost of transportation are some of the components that dictate the general price level. An increase in the cost of any of these components will reduce the total amount of money ABC generates for products sold or services provided. Similar to general price level, the rate of interest can impact the development of ABC. Interest rates can have a direct effect on the loans that ABC takes to drive its performance improvement strategies forward (K, 2013). The Agency needs to establish strategies and contingencies to cope with the above-mentioned economic elements, along with inflation and recession. Socio-Cultural Analysis As the society evolves, there is a need for organisations like ABC to adapt to stay ahead of the game. By being aware of the societal and cultural changes, ABC will continue to operate smoothly toward success. Changing customer preferences is a socio-cultural factor that can impact ABC’s operations, especially its business decisions. In that regard, it is of utmost importance that ABC examines the lifestyles, attitudes, styles and priorities of its customers. Relative to the changes in preferences is the changes in demographics. Changes in demographics can significantly affect ABC’s operations because population rates increase, people age and gender  roles change. As the morals, values and tastes of people change, ABC needs to keep up especially in terms of advertising techniques (Richards & Media, 2015). Other socio-cultural factors that need to be considered include population health, education, social mobility, employment patterns, press attitude, public opinion and social taboos (Public Health Action Support Team, 2011). Technological Analysis The constant evolution of technology impacts organisations as it provides them with opportunities to improve. ABC must be aware of the emerging technologies to be a frontrunner in the market. Monitoring the advances in technological processes is vital to sustain any organisation. These technological innovations can be used to improve productivity, quality and efficiency. Some of the technological advances that can help improve ABC’s daily operations include online databases, shared drives, e-mails, blogs and mobile applications (Education Portal, 2015). The development of the internet can also affect ABC’s marketing strategies and activities in a positive way. By utilising the internet, ABC can reach a wider audience as youngsters nowadays are much more eager and confident to experiment with advanced technologies. Additionally, ABC can also utilise today’s technology to enhance the way it communicates with its internal and external customers. Aside from e-mails and smart phones, online meetings, web conferencing and videoconferencing can also be used for effective and efficient communication (Business Case Studies LLP, 2015). Technological advances offer a variety of advantages. However, it can also transform an organisation into a failure when it is abused or used improperly. In that regard, ABC needs to take note of its responsibilities when posting something online. Environmental Analysis ABC, like other organisations, must abide by certain environmental rules and regulations in all developmental stages. ABC’s equipment, procedures and even building expansions must conform to environmental regulations and meet regulatory requirements (Jeanty & Media, 2015). ABC also needs to be aware of its local competition. Market research can be used to create awareness relative to the day-to-day operations of the competitors. The information gathered can be used for process improvements. Other environmental factors that need to be considered include geographical location, climate and weather (Blurtit Ltd., 2015). Legal Analysis Legal changes that can impact ABC are tied up with some political changes. The key to survival is to not only anticipate but also prepare to come across future legal changes. ABC needs to ensure all the legal requirements are met. Some of the legislations that ABC needs to comply with include Equal Opportunity Act 1984, Anti-Discrimination Law, Anti-Bullying Law and Occupational Safety and Health Act 1984 (Business Case Studies LLP, 2015). SWOT Analysis Conducting a SWOT analysis to identify the strengths, weaknesses, opportunities and threats of an organisation is important to achieve success. In this report, the strengths, weaknesses, opportunities and threats of HR’s proposed diversity program was analysed. Strengths The diversity program will be an ongoing program. This will give all participants a sense of belongingness for a long period of time. Although the program is innovative, it does not require a large amount of money for it to be implemented. Its implementation will be supported by different fundraising activities like garage sales. The program will advocate workplace diversity inside and outside the organisation. The diversity  advocacy will emphasise not only age and culture but also sexual orientation and physical ability. Furthermore, this diversity program will provide future participants with a variety of interest group options that will enable them to express themselves through food or music. Weaknesses The greatest weakness of the diversity program is the ageing employees. The program will depend on the existing staff to facilitate the interest groups efficiently. As some of the existing younger staff can perform the tasks well, the old staff can become a liability. This weakness leads to another weakness which has something to do with technology. The program will be facilitated by old people and this people are not technology savvy. This unfamiliarity with advanced technologies can impact the implementation of the program. Because ABC is a non-profit organisation, it has limited function rooms. This room insufficiency can create conflicts among the different interest groups in terms of meeting or activity schedules. Opportunities This diversity program offers various opportunities such as motivated workforce, wider audience, awareness, visibility, recognition and more volunteers. The sense of belongingness that the staff will get out of the program will motivate them to deliver a high performance. HR plans to update ABC’s official website by adding a page that talks about workplace diversity in general. The proposed diversity program as well as the interest groups will also be posted. This update will give ABC an opportunity to reach a wider audience. In addition, it will create awareness on workplace diversity. This will provide ABC with an opportunity to expand its visibility in the community, which may also lead to several recognitions. An increase in the number of volunteers is another great opportunity. Threats Since the program will be open to people with different backgrounds and even  to those whose first language is not English, a communication gap due to language barrier is a possible threat. There is also a possibility of the workforce not willing to work extra hours. This is a threat because if there is an issue with the number of facilitators, the program will be unsuccessful. In relation to that, potential volunteers may only be involved in the program for a short period of time. Lastly, ABC’s team managers who will be the facilitators of the interest groups may get overwhelmed with all the duties and responsibilities that will be given to them. Selected Human Resources Strategy Diversity Every organisation consists of individuals and each of these individuals is unique. This individuality calls for workplace diversity. Workplace diversity refers to the differences among people in an organisation. These differences can include age, gender, race, sexual orientation, family status, religion, physical ability and experience. In totality, diversity encircles acceptance, understanding and respect (Commonwealth Bank of Australia, 2015). Workplace diversity is important as it is increasingly being considered an asset to organisations. Establishing a positive, diverse work environment will lead to motivated workforce and improved services for the customers. Moreover, research states that the most engaged employees are those working in a diverse environment (Commonwealth Bank of Australia, 2015). Diversity Program This diversity program aims to attract and retain qualified direct care staff by providing them with a welcoming, inclusive and supportive workplace. The program consists of different interest groups namely the cooking club, the singing and dancing club, the moms club and the Lesbian, Gay, Bisexual, Transgender employees and straight Friends (LGBTF) club. Basically, these interest groups will be formed to support identified groups such as people with disability, indigenous Australians, aged people, people with caring,  family or relationship responsibilities, people from other countries and cultures and people whose first language is not English (Australian Public Service Commission, 2012). This diversity program was inspired by the Australian Federal Police (AFP). The AFP is an organisation that provides its employees with equal opportunities while complying with relevant government legislations. It acknowledges that workplace diversity does not only encompass language and culture but also age, gender, sexual orientation and attitude (Commonwealth of Australia, 2015). The AFP advocates diversity in the workplace through the following ways: the Employee Assistance Program which provides external support for members and their families the Malunggang Indigenous Officers Network which supports the recruitment and career development of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander people support for community events and celebrations such as Harmony Day, Disability Day and NAIDOC Week Gay and Lesbian Officer Network which provides support to its members and advises management on strategies and initiatives relevant to the gay, lesbian, bisexual, transgender and intersex (GLBTI) communities the Women’s Network which aims to support, encourage and network by providing leadership to women in the organisation and developing and implementing strategies to meet a wide range of interests and needs the internal network of Harassment Contact Officers and Confidantes which provides support to anyone who may need it the Workforce Diversity Plan, which aims to encourage managers and employees to value diversity the Employee Management Pla n through which managers are accountable for work/home/life balance strategies for themselves and their team the appointment of staff with key roles in building relationships within the AFP and the broader community, including GLBTI and Indigenous community officers (Commonwealth of Australia, 2015) Human Resources Plan Interest Groups The cooking club will be open for food enthusiasts. While people who love to cook will be highly encouraged to join the club, people who do not cook but want to learn how to cook will also be welcomed as cooking classes will be provided once in a while. The singing and dancing club will be open for music aficionados. People who are interested to join this club will be given an option to become a member of either a choir or a dance group or both. The moms club will be open for all the mothers who like to mingle with other mothers. This club will be beneficial for the new mothers as they will learn a lot of things relative to being both a good mother and a good wife. LGBTF Club Gender and sexual preference impact not only organisations but also laws and attitudes in different ways. The treatment of people toward this issue varies from country to country and culture to culture. The positive thing about the modernised societies all over the world is they now provide the LGBTF community with a favourable treatment (University of Michigan, 2015). Because of the acceptance, understanding and respect the society is currently demonstrating, HR intends to form the LGBTF club not only to celebrate diversity but also to create a workplace culture that is welcoming and accommodating (Australian Public Service Commission, 2012). Through this club, HR aims to achieve the following: Treat all employees and volunteers with dignity and respect Take advantage of diverse backgrounds, ideas, beliefs, circumstances and needs relative to operational methods, work systems and leadership styles Include all employees and volunteers in business decisions Utilise available resources in making reasonable, objective decisions (Australian Public Service Commission, 2012) Aside from the AFP, Thomson Reuters, a multinational organisation that provides businesses and professionals with intelligent information, also  supports the LGBTF community. As a matter of fact, Jan-Coos Geesink, the Managing Director of Thomson Reuters UK and a straight guy, is backing gay, lesbian, bisexual and transgender rights in the workplace. He believes in these people and their power to create a better place to work. â€Å"But one global aspiration that Pride At Work has is for people to be able to celebrate who they are at work, regardless of their sexuality or gender-alignment, and for them to be accepted,† he added (Geesink, 2015). Other places around the globe that support the LGBTF community include Africa, the United States of America, Asia, Europe and Middle East (University of Michigan, 2015). Plan Implementation Fundraising The diversity program will be backed up by different fundraising activities such as food selling, clothes selling and garage sales. The proceeds together with the 25% increase in the amount of money acquired from donations will be used to support the interest groups. The fundraising activities will be conducted by ABC’s volunteers along with the existing staff and those people with disability. The interested individuals will be asked to bake cookies, cupcakes and the likes and produce crocheted clothes and accessories. The goods will be sold inside and outside the organisation. This initiative will be implemented once or twice a month. The volunteers will not only be able to frequent any of the interest group activities but also get a chance to be part of the organisation. Figure 3. Fund raising methodology. Website The existing official website of ABC will be updated by adding a new page that tackles workplace diversity. The update will also include information  about the proposed diversity program as well as a detailed description of each interest group. Procedures on how to join the clubs will also be posted. In addition, the page will allow visitors to post testimonials about people with disability from all over the world. The write-up can be based on their own experience or someone else’s. There will also be a section on the page for announcements or updates regarding the interest groups. The update will be done by the previous web designer for free. This project will be completed within a month. However, the website will have to be updated regularly. Figure 4. Updated website methodology. Mothers as Volunteers With the help of the updated website, HR anticipates to attract volunteers, potentially the mothers of children with disability, to help facilitate the diversity program. A series of training sessions every Saturday morning in a span of two months will be given to the volunteers. The volunteers will be encouraged to take their kids to ABC to participate in any of the activities. One of the existing team managers will conduct the training sessions. While available resources will be utilised, the cost of additional resources will come from the budget provided by the government. Figure 5. ‘Mothers as volunteers’ methodology. Outcomes The expected main outcome of this entire program is ABC’s improved capacity that leads to attracting and retaining qualified direct care staff. Other expected outcomes include motivated workforce and patients, wider audience, diversity awareness, greater visibility in the community, more volunteers, recreation and leisure activities and family support. Through this diversity program and all the social activities that come along with it, ABC’s staff will be motivated to perform their responsibilities. The interest groups will allow them to do the things they are passionate  about. It will also give them an opportunity to express who and what they are through food, music and so many other things. Not only that, even the people with disability will also be motivated to do the things they are good at despite their physical condition. Because of the sense of belongingness they will get out of the interest groups, these people will be more willing and enthusiastic to participate in the fundraising activities. One of the expected outcomes of the updated website is awareness on workplace diversity. This awareness is expected to reach a wider audience which can possibly lead to more volunteers and donations. An increased visibility in and a full acceptance by the community are also expected to happen after updating the official website and implementing the program. The other positive outcomes of this diversity program are new recreation and leisure activities and family support for both the ABC’s direct care staff and patients with disability. Barriers There are several issues that may hinder the success of HR’s strategy, which is the diversity program. These barriers include insufficient function rooms, insufficient funds and work overload. Since the program will offer four interest groups, ABC needs more rooms to facilitate every activity that will be conducted. Furthermore, additional budget to sustain all the interest groups will be necessary. Another important issue that may exist is work overload. The staff may get overwhelmed with the extra tasks that they will need to perform to implement the program. Action Plans To avoid the above-mentioned potential barriers, HR came up with several action plans. A systematic way of reserving meeting or function rooms will be implemented to address the issue about insufficient rooms. To ensure the budget is enough to sustain the interest groups, a selection of fundraising activities will be conducted. To prevent the staff from getting overwhelmed with additional tasks, more volunteers will be acquired. Bibliography Australian Public Service Commission. (2012). Australian Government Australian Public Service Commission. Retrieved 2015, from APSC Workplace Diversity Program: http://www.apsc.gov.au/about-the-apsc/the-commission/including-you Blurtit Ltd. (2015). Blurtit. Retrieved 2015, from What Are The Environmental Factors That Affect Business?: http://business-finance.blurtit.com/325745/what-are-the-environmental-factors-that-affect-business Business Case Studies LLP. (2015). Business Case Studies. Retrieved 2015, from Responding to Changes in the Market Environment: http://businesscasestudies.co.uk/jessops/responding-to-changes-in-the-market-environment/political-factors.html#axzz3STTKCKMw Business Case Studies LLP. (2015). Business Case Studies. Retrieved 2015, from Responding to Changes in the Market Environment: http://businesscasestudies.co.uk/jessops/responding-to-changes-in-the-market-environment/technological-factors.html#axzz3Skbz74Cw Business Case Studies LLP. (2015). Business Case S tudies. Retrieved 2015, from Managing external influences: http://businesscasestudies.co.uk/first-group/managing-external-influences/environmental-and-legal-factors.html#axzz3Skbz74Cw Commonwealth Bank of Australia. (2015). Retrieved from Diversity Policy: https://www.commbank.com.au/about-us/PDS_PDF/CBT638-Diversity-Policy.pdf Commonwealth of Australia. (2015). Australian Federal Police. Retrieved 2015, from Diversity and Opportunity: http://www.afp.gov.au/jobs/diversity.aspx Education Portal. (2015). Education Portal. Retrieved 2015, from Technological Factors in Business: Definition, Lesson & Quiz: http://education-portal.com/academy/lesson/technological-factors-in-business-definition-lesson-quiz.html Geesink, J.-C. (2015, 2 13). Thomson Reuters The Knowledge Effect. Retrieved 2015, from Why I support LGBT rights at Thomson Reuters: http://blog.thomsonreuters.com/index.php/im-straight-guy-supporting-lgbt-rights-thomson-reuters/ Jeanty, J., & Media, D. (2015). Chron. Retrieved 201 5,

Benefits and Health Risks Associated with Energy giving Drinks Essay

Benefits and Health Risks Associated with Energy giving Drinks - Essay Example Another secondary reason for this report is to understand the reasons why these drinks are used widely by youths or, in other words, and the consumption rate is widespread in youths (Aronson, 2011). A keen study, review, and analysis of the literature reveal that other stimulant and caffeine substances enclosed in these drinks have a positive and direct effect on the users too. The intended impact of energy drinks is to improve performance and provide sustenance, endurance, and concentration. Almost every Manufacturer pitches their products in work fields that require sustained alertness. But these drinks too have got no position in the adolescents and children’s diet (American Academy of Pediatrics, 20110). In addition, frequent or extreme intake of caloric energy drinks can largely enhance the risk for obesity or overweight adolescents and children’s. Discussion regarding educating the ‘users; of this drinks on how to use it appropriately, either by people who p articipates regularly in endurance or high-intensity of vigorous physical activity is the aim of the report (Brown, 2013). Energy drinks are grouped among beverages containing modest to relatively high levels of caffeine concentration, which gives a range of 50–505 mg caffeine/serving; 2.5–35.7 mg caffeine/oz, in comparison with other caffeinated beverages such as 6-ounce cup of coffee that range 77–150 mg; 12.8–25 mg caffeine/oz. In other words, energy â€Å"shots† are low-volume that is, 1–2 oz beverages and hence, records even a higher percentage in caffeine concentration more than other energy drinks (orange 100–350 mg; 90–171 mg caffeine/ oz (Maughan, 2001). The stimulants in these drinks include caffeine that is marketed as a provider of mental and physical stimulation (Brown, 2012). The energy drinks sometimes may or may not be carbonated though some; may also contain sugar or other sweeteners, amino acids, and herbal extracts. They are a subset or a division of the bigger group of energy products that include gels and bars, and distinct from drinks which are advertised to improve and enhance any performance (Millward, 2003).

Corporate culturism facilitates excellent business performance Essay

Corporate culturism facilitates excellent business performance. Critically discuss this statement - Essay Example This report critically investigates the role of business Culturism in strengthening the presentation of the business natural environment. The theory will address the evaluation with preceding administration ideas. It will talk about the topic of functional autonomy as the cornerstone of achieving large business performance. The report will talk about the relevant aspects of corporate Culturism in increasing the conclusion of organizations. Background The corporate culturism rose as a focal topic in an association throughout 1980's. The ventures of reinforcing the corporate society were completed around then, accepting that it might have positive effect on the execution of the organization (Brochet, 2012; Brown 2006). Some other mainstream societies all hands on deck associations are Total Quality Management (TQM) and Human Resource Management (HRM). Numerous hypothetical effects were distributed that supported these methodologies also. The development of corporate culturism has been credited to the advancement of instruction in the segment if business and enterprise. Typical extents have been investigated in organizational life that sprung the idea of corporate assemblies and images (Bushee, 2001; Champoux, 2011; Cheng, 2011). Solid corporate society pushes the better execution of representatives of the association (Choi, 2009; Zingales, 2000). It is credited to the change in quality and profit that twists from corporate societies. It compensates distinct laborers in association typically and in addition really for legitimate recognizable proof of their part in the association. The principle objective behind favoring corporate culturism is, comprehending the part of people in association. It is about taking in the "hearts and brains" of distinctive laborers in the organization to fittingly turn their exertions in the right course (Jenter, 2011; Jensen, 2001). In the event that the corporate society is string then even the feeble exhibitions of the customary spe cialists will be used in the support of the organization (Bhattacharya, 2007; Willmoit, 1993; Eccles, 2010). Corporate culturism promotes the coherent efforts, shared culture and uplifting efforts from all workers for proper adaptations to the tasks assigned. This culture extracts the meaningful effort from a huge set of employees for the benefit of the company. The purpose for quality work emanates usually from dedicated and collaborative efforts from all employees (Watson, 2006; Eccles, 2011). Whenever a new idea in business environment is initiated, it is critically analyzed whether it is combination of old gadgets or it is entirely a new one. The new theory must have significant impact of the outcome of the organization and political influence of the company. When the idea of â€Å"Corporate Culturism† was introduced, it was found that it is a revolutionary idea. It definitely has significant impact of the politics of the working culture in companies. The authors in (Eccl es, 2011) argue that the spreading of corporate culturism has been quite successful in business society. This culture helps in determining the rules of excellence. Some researchers argue that the applications of the corporate culturism may be vague or impractical (Edmans, 2011; Simnett, 2009). They emphasize the point that this culture is hard to implement in the business environment. The cost of implementation of the culture may not be returned that would result in failure of the company. However, the core ideas of corporate cult

Foreign Policy Issues Faced by UK Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Foreign Policy Issues Faced by UK - Essay Example The three issues of international concern to the U.K. are discussed in greater depth below. Discussion The United Kingdom has been in the forefront of international news lately and these three foreign policy issues are the fight against terrorism, the economic crisis in Europe and the on-going war in Libya of which Great Britain and France took the lead roles for all NATO members in cooperation with the United States of America. The three international issues are important to the United Kingdom because it is leading member of the European Union as well as a major player in the international arena of politics, economy and the oil industry. On the whole, an evaluation of the newspaper's approach to presenting the news will show it tries to present a balanced view of the news, without any sensationalism, slant or any personal opinion either of the reporter or the newspaper's news editors. This is as it should be as the task of any newspaper is to inform its readers and any views on the news should always be properly relegated to the opinion-editorial page (op-ed section). If ever, the personal views of the reporter are largely muted or very subtle an ordinary reader would hardly notice it. The fight against Islamist terrorism is of great interest to the United Kingdom. It is a primary concern to the country as it itself had once been a victim of these terrorists attacks. It was not too long ago when four suicide bombers detonated themselves in a well-coordinated attack by riding on London's trains and set off the bombs back in July 07, 2005 that targeted civilian train passengers. The four bombers declared themselves as jihadists and had links to the terror network of Al Qaeda. The recent successes of the American's anti-terrorism efforts should be of good cheer to the English people as well because it implies a safer environment for every British citizen. The killing of Osama bin Laden in Pakistan back in May this year is a great victory against international ter rorism. The recent news about the assassination of Mr. Anwar al-Awlaki in Yemen should be reason enough for a celebration (Hider 1) as this guy in a way had assumed the ideological leadership of Al Qaeda after Osama bin Laden was killed. The Central Intelligence Agency (CIA) of the United States which is the lead agency tasked to fight terrorism overseas had targeted him despite Mr. Awlaki being an American citizen. He is a native American of sorts, having been born in New Mexico but he took up jihad (Dozier and Apuzzo 1) and was responsible for several failed bombing attempts using airplanes also. The second news item of international significance for the United Kingdom is the on-going financial and economic crisis in Europe caused by the risk of default by Greece. The country is one of the strongest economies in Europe, besides Germany and France, It is only expected that it will also play a leading role in resolving this latest debt crisis by contributing to a bailout fund and st amping a seal of approval for any loans to be given out to Greece. But is it also in a quandary of sorts, as the country itself has not yet fully recovered from an earlier financial crisis brought about by the bursting of the American housing sub-mortgage bubble in 2007 and is also suffering from a large budget deficit that has necessitated big cutbacks. Great Britain had seemed headed for a mild economic recovery just six months ago but the situation today has completely deteriorated due

What public Sector Bodies can expect from their Auditors Essay

What public Sector Bodies can expect from their Auditors - Essay Example Auditors often provide added value by noting an opportunity for cost-efficient improvements which may arise from the auditors’ investigation and bring these issues to the attention of the management. Thus, it is expected that public auditors should endeavor to promote better decision making and management wherever possible, in order to effect a more efficient use of public resources. Proper auditing in the public sector is essential for maintaining the confidence of the general public during any tenure of managing public funds, and should be carried out to ensure accountability of those entrusted with public funds. On their own part, Malaysian public sector auditors should be accountable for their performance, and it is the duty of public sector auditors to undertake their auditing work in an objective, cost-effective and professional manner, with due regard to the needs of the public sector bodies that they audit. The primary audience of the public sector auditors includes the local electorates, the taxpayers and the parliament, as their statutory functions are executed on behalf of the taxpayers. It is essential for public sector auditors to thoroughly plan each audit with a good understanding of the operational environment. The major value of financial statement auditing comes from the assurance provided to taxpayers due to objective and rigorous auditing. The service provided by public sector auditors also provides value by causing an improvement of financial management. It is important for auditors to endeavor to promote better decision making and management whenever possible, so as to enable better and more effective use of public resources (Kamaruzaman Jusoff 2010). This can be achieved by the dissemination and highlighting of good practice and the provision of technical assistance which will help to promote efficiency in corporate governance arrangements in the public sector in Malaysia. As set down by the statement of auditing 100,

How the world works Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1750 words

How the world works - Essay Example the student the ability and skill set to effectively analyze and draw connections and conclusions based upon a variety of different sources of material. For purposes of this brief analysis, the student will engage with film documentaries. Through such a unit of analysis, it is the hope of this analyst that the unifying theme of green as it relates to the human condition will be effectively demonstrated. Although it is inherently true that each of the documentaries focuses upon a different aspect of human greed, oftentimes wholly and completely disassociated from the other documentaries represented, they all nonetheless exhibit key issues related to the human condition and the means by which human greed threatens to have a severely negative impact upon the overall quality and existence of life for tens of millions of individuals around the world. In terms of the first documentary/film that will be analyzed, â€Å"Blue Gold: World Water Wars†, the filmmaker begins the discussion by representing the way in which liquid water forms the fundamental basis of all biological life. From such a basic scientific interpretation, it is easily understandable that the availability and existence of liquid water throughout the world, and its overall purity levels, contribute directly to the possibility for certain individuals, races, and regions, to develop as compared to others. From the outset, the film indicates the fact that the disparity within certain regions and between different parts of the world, in terms of overall existence and usage of water is ultimately a predicate of the wealth that individuals within these regions/nations are able to exhibit. Illustrating the case of California, the filmmaker makes the case that the regions which received a disproportionately larger share of water resources are inherently those that haven’t overall higher income as compared to the average of incomes within other regions (Bozzo, 2010). Expanding this to a more supra-national

The Ethical Aspects of Cloning Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

The Ethical Aspects of Cloning - Essay Example Margaret Talbot embarked on a bold and delicate journey to explore the issues behind human cloning for the purposes of recreating lost loved ones. Beginning with an example of the death of a 10-month-old baby boy caused by something going wrong during a minor operation. The parents of the infant want to clone him, giving the reason that he should have a chance of life. Although they are a healthy, fertile couple with the ability to produce another child, they do not want another child. They want that child.Talbot goes on to wonder if people realize that creating a genetically identical copy of a human does not mean that the clone will be the same person, only a replica.The idea of cloning a human being for the purposes of replacing what was lost is ludicrous in my opinion. First of all, as Talbot’s article states, the clone would not have the same memories or necessarily the same personality as the original.A good case in point to demonstrate a difference in personality betwee n an original human and a clone would be identical twins; they are genetically alike, yet they have different preferences, different personalities and sometimes are so different that they may as well have come from different families.It is easy to become so familiar with a person, a pet or a friend that to associate anyone or anything that looks like them is associated with the original, with expectations of sameness. This is a very basic human reaction and the desire for continuity. Religious or spiritual beliefs aside, everyone and everything is unique, even if similar.

To persuate to pas my class Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

To persuate to pas my class - Essay Example I suppose that it is through the challenges of passing or excelling in class that we students grow to become refined individuals able to express ourselves with strong will and intellect, knowing that we have surpassed certain weaknesses while in the process of fulfilling academic requirements. In classroom, teachers are normally strict and formal by nature and I must admit being particularly challenged by instructors who provide the class some real tough moments of rigorously developing skills whether in analyzing a literary piece or in working out a problem that requires mechanical solution. Nevertheless, I know at the back of my head that listening to my teacher attentively and following instructions carefully would all pay off in the end since besides passing the course, I acquire the advantage of learning a huge number of things which can be of ample essence to my comprehension of major subjects in the future. More than the ability to survive the course, I feel motivated to proceed with diligent studies in class regardless of how complicated the subject matter could get, believing that somewhere in this current painstaking situation, I would be able to discover potentials yet unknown. By heart, I understand that real teachers set high expectations and seemingly imposs ible levels of standard from student performance so if I continue to persevere and strive harder even with average capacity, I can make it. Moreover, I realize that classroom experience is not merely about pressures in studying academic lessons because it also helps to interact with classmates who come from diverse socio-cultural backgrounds. Through their specific attitude, character, and the manner by which they handle scholastic tasks, they manage to share inspiring ideas and model image I can often look up to at times it occurs I readily get burned out. With these people, the approach toward passing a hard subject would not be as complex as I usually think it

What Are the Qualities That an Ideal Person Should Cultivate, Possess Essay Example for Free

What Are the Qualities That an Ideal Person Should Cultivate, Possess Essay 1. Introduction In this paper, I will discuss what qualities should be cultivated, possessed, and practiced for an ideal person according to Confucius. Although Confucius regards humanness, wisdom, and courage as the basic threefold towards being a junzi (superior man/ideal person, ), there has been an ongoing disagreement among scholars regarding the qualities that are needed to become an ideal person or a junzi. I shall accomplish my purpose by first providing a basic background of information on the topic, then identifying two conflicting interpretations of the qualities that are required by Hosung Ahn and Ha Poong Kim, adding my own critical response, and lastly offering my resolution using Antonio S. Cua’s interpretation on the topic. I will use Confucian Analects (1895) by James Legge as my primary source, along with â€Å"Junzi as a Tragic Person: A Self Psychological Interpretation of the Analects† (Ahn, 2008), â€Å"Confucius’s Aesthetic Concept of Noble Man: Beyond Moralism† (Ha, 2006), and â€Å"Virtues of Junzi† (Cua, 2007) as my secondary sources. 2. Background Information According to Chinese tradition, Confucius is one of the most outstanding thinker, political figure, educator, philosopher, and the founder of the Ru (? ) School of Chinese thought. Our textbook â€Å"The Eastern Paths to Philosophic Self-Enlightenment: An introduction to Eastern Philosophies† (2002) written by Professor Phan points out that Confucius’s thoughts are preserved in the Lunyu ( ) or the Analects, which is one of the Four Books. It is worth noting that the Analects was not written by Master Kong Zi (Confucius, ) himself, but complied by his close disciples when they recollected his â€Å"sayings† after Confucius’s death. Defined by Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, Confucius’s teachings create the foundation on most of subsequent Chinese speculation on the education and comportment of the junzi ( ), and how such an individual should live his life, interact with others, and the types of society and government in which he should participate. On one hand, in 14:20, the Master said, â€Å"The way of the superior man is threefold, but I am not equal to it. Virtuous, he is free from anxieties; wise, he is free from perplexities; bold; he is free from fear. † While on the other hand, scholars have attempted to interpret the qualities of junzi differently. In the next section, I shall examine the conflicting interpretations of Ahn and Kim. 3. First Interpretation by Hosung Ahn A. Background on Confucianism and Psychological Connotations of Junzi In Ahn’s article, he provides historical background information on Confucianism being the most efficient ideological means of medieval and modern authoritarian governments in China and Korea (Ahn, 2008). Yet, Ahn argues that in the course of quoting Weber (1968), Confucianism and Daoism could not be introduced into modern capitalism due to their â€Å"thisworldliness. † Ahn depicts Confucianism as one of the major hindrances in the road toward modernization and industrialization and considers Confucius as a stubborn and conservative moralist whose ethical codes were oppressive. By introducing Heinz Kohut, an Austrian-born American psychoanalyst, Ahn compares Kohutian psychoanalysis such as self-psychology with Confucianism’s ideal person in the Analects. Ahn provides the basic background information in the purpose of identifying Confucianism as being neither sophisticated nor systematized; yet, Ahn suggests that the Analects could be interpreted as a pre-psychoanalytic self-psychology owing to the abundant self psychological insights in the Analects. Ahn then defines junzi as â€Å"a prince literally and a gentleman ordinarily,† and that in Confucianism, â€Å"a junzi is a noble person who attempts to actualize Confucian cardinal virtues in concrete human relationships at any cost. A junzi has often been considered a conformist or a conservative† (Ahn, 2008). Furthermore, Ahn states that Confucianism being established as an ethical and political orthodoxy in Korea was a rigid and authoritarian formalistic, and of which courtesy, rituals, and humanity were the fundamental standards of being a junzi (see Shun 2002). B. Ahn’s Thesis In this article, Ahn (2008) specifically points out that â€Å"a junzi is a tragic person in the Kohutian sense. Like a tragic person, a junzi follows his or her ideals with values deeply anchored in oneself even at the expense of one’s death. † Ahn thinks the most important standards of being a junzi are courtesy and rituals; he states that, â€Å"Confucius himself severely criticizes the externalized beauty and grandeur without the internalized quality of character† (Ahn, 2008). Most importantly, Ahn addresses that the core characteristic of the Kohutian tragic person is almost identically expressed in the Analects: humanity (ren, ? ), which is the ultimate virtue of Confucianism and that a junzi would rather die than giving up his or her ideals and values; which Ahn refers to as strikingly similar to Kohut’s definition of a tragic person. In terms of Ahn’s arguments for supporting his claim, he brings out the topic of xiaoren (small man, ) and defines it as â€Å"those whose ideals and values are superficially situated on the psyche as compared to junzi in the Analects† (Ahn, 2008). Ahn then identifies the difference between a xiaoren and a junzi employing Confucius’s saying, â€Å"The gentleman (junzi) is conversant with righteousness; the small man (xiaoren) is conversant with profit† (Analects, 4. 16). Ahn points out that because a xiaoren focus on what is beneficial to him or her only, he or she cannot but be vulnerable to the external vicissitudes. Similarly, according to Kohut, a xiaoren would â€Å"quickly and opportunistically adjust his or her convictions under the influence of external pressures† (cited in Ahn, 2008); whereas a junzi is determined to â€Å"adhere to the good (Way) until death† (Analects, 8. 13). Ahn then considers this determination as courage, and he quotes Kohut (1985) that â€Å"The culminate peace (in his death) achieved by the hero is†¦the ultimate ascendancy of a firm and life-affirming self† (p. 27). Ahn further proves that Confucius has expressed the same idea through: â€Å"If a man in the morning hears the right way, he may die in the evening without regret† (Analects, 4. 8). Thus, Hosung Ahn summarizes that a junzi, according to Confucius, is a person who searches for â€Å"the achievement of a psychological synthesis at all costs† (Ahn, 2008). In other words, Hosung Ahn interprets that Confucius thinks the quality an ideal person should cultivate, possess, and practice is the spirit of achieving a psychological synthesis or preserving his or her ideals and values at all costs. 4. Second Interpretation by Ha Poong Kim A. Background on Aesthetic Concept of a Noble Man In Kim’s article, he provides historical background information of the Analects being narrowly and moralistically interpreted. Kim points out that Confucius’s remarks such as from â€Å"the Book of Songs and Music† are commonly given an ethical meaning owing to the tradition of Confucius’s key term ren (humanness, ? ) as being an ethical term. Through offering a historical basis as a foundation, Kim attempts to broaden Confucius’s humanistic interpretation of ren as humanness or the human spirit. In details, Kim (2006) addresses that â€Å"while the word ren only rarely occurs in the pre-Confucian literature, it is used in works such as the Songs and the (Book of) History, essentially as a synonym of ren. † To demonstrate that Confucius’s teaching ren for the first time as the supreme principle of human existence and that Confucius is the discoverer of the human spirit in Chinese civilization, Kim introduces and explains other meanings and definitions of ren used in other Confucius or Mencius materials. Also, Ha Poong Kim offers the background information of â€Å"one-dimensional image of the Confucian junzi as a rigid moralist, a man whose distinguishing mark is just a fastidious observance of li (rites, ? )† (Kim, 2006). With all the background information and explanation provided by Kim, he expresses the fact that some of Confucius’s sayings in the Analects are purely aesthetic and any attempt to moralistically interpret them distorts their meanings. B. Kim’s Thesis Kim (2006) agrees with the normativity of Confucius’s concept of ren, yet he argues that the ground of its normativity is fundamentally aesthetic. In supporting his claim, Kim applies Confucius’s teaching: â€Å"Recognize beauty in abiding in ren. If one chooses not to stay in ren, how can one be considered to have attained wisdom? † (Analects, 4:1) Kim interprets this saying as Confucius stressing the recognition of the beauty of ren as a necessary condition of human wisdom, which is equivalent to the awareness of the human spirit. Kim defines this recognition as an aesthetic awareness. Then, through applying Confucius’s saying: â€Å"To become a junzi Ru (noble scholar, ), not a xiaoren Ru (common scholar, )† (Analects, 6:11); Kim points out the difference between a junzi and a xiaoren ultimately comes from the noble man’s awareness of the beauty of ren, which the small man (xiaoren) lacks. Kim explains that since a junzi has this aesthetic sensibility of humanness, he naturally desires, loves, and delights in ren and every manifestation of it. For the purpose of backing up Kim’s claim, he states Confucius believes that by studying the Songs, one would be best awakened, which then explains why Confucius repeatedly urges his pupils to study the Songs. Kim argues that Confucius’s teaching is to help the students become a junzi, who is a lover of ren, through arousing humanness that is obtained through the study of music. In this particular main argument, Kim (2006) summarizes that â€Å"for Confucius’s spiritual awakening, specifically the aesthetic awakening to ren, is the presupposition of the education of junzi. Without this wakening, the learner or scholar will remain a xiaoren Ru, no matter how well versed he may be in ritual subjects, and regardless of how blameless he may be in his ethical conduct. † Next, Kim offers another important argument that during Confucius’s years of wandering from state to state in search of a good ruler, he rarely parted with his lute. Sima Qian, an Ancient Chinese historian, revealed that once, surrounded by two hostile armies, Confucius and his disciples ran out of provisions in the wilderness between the states of Chen and Cai. With some of his disciples falling ill and being unable to get up, Confucius calmly continued singing songs and plucking his lute. Kim regards Confucius’s act as a man capable of forgetting everything else while enjoying music. Thus, in Kim’s point of view, what fundamentally separates Confucius’s junzi from the rest of humanity is the junzi’s aesthetic sensibility to ren. In other words, Kim believes that according to Confucius, the quality a junzi should cultivate, possess, and practice is the aesthetic awareness. Nevertheless, Kim mentions that through stressing the junzi as an aesthetic man, he is not denying a junzi’s many-sidedness. 5. Critique I agree with Hosung Ahn’s claim regarding junzi as a noble person who attempts to actualize Confucian cardinal virtues, and that courtesy, rituals, humanness, and courage are important criterions of becoming a junzi. Moreover, I agree with Ahn’s claim that a junzi would follow his or her ideals and values deeply anchored in oneself even at the expensed of death. However, I strongly disagree with Ahn’s opinion of Confucius’s teaching or his classification of a junzi as a tragic person. In my point of view, Ahn has made an inaccurate interpretation of one Confucius’s saying from the Analects. In 4:8, Confucius teaches that â€Å"If a man in the morning hear(s) the right way, he may die in the evening without regret. † Ahn interprets this saying as Confucius’s advocating of a junzi who must search for â€Å"achievements of a psychological synthesis at all costs† (Ahn, 2008), and this remarkably resembles a tragic person. As the exercise we conducted in our philosophy class on textual hermeneutics of the Confucian Dao in the Analects, this Confucius’s saying represents the importance of the Dao (way, ? ); which according to Confucius, with the experience of hearing the Dao, one could die without regrets afterwards. Thus, this person or this junzi would be a happy person since he contains the very important factor â€Å"Dao†, and that he is absolutely not a tragic person as Hosung Ahn considers as. In terms of Ha Poong Kim’s interpretation of a junzi, I agree with Kim regarding the fact that Confucius repeatedly urges his disciples to study the Songs and Music because it would indeed help his pupils awaken and broaden their minds, enjoy the six arts, and commit to the Dao. I also agree with Kim that a junzi is many-sidedness. What I do not agree with Kim is his differentiation of a junzi and a xiaoren through aesthetic awareness. As I mentioned above, Kim (2006) summarizes in this particular main argument that â€Å"†¦without this wakening, the learning or scholar will remain a xiaoren Ru, no matter how well versed he may be in ritual subjects, and no matter how blameless he may be in his ethical conduct. † In my opinion, apart from pointing out Confucius advocates his pupils to study the Songs and Music, Kim has not given sufficient evidence to support this claim. He has not shown any Confucius’s teaching that could demonstrate the fundamental difference between a xiaoren’s and a junzi’s aesthetic awareness, but rather Kim provides claims simply from his own exploration of Confucius’s thoughts. To further prove that Kim’s interpretation is inaccurate, there are numerous examples of junzi lacking of musical talents and xiaoren being extremely talented in aesthetic. In my opinion, Confucius does believe that music could change one’s mind, adjust one’s mood, smooth one’s qi (energy) and etc. , but Confucius certainly does not identify a junzi from a xiaoren based on aesthetics. 6. Resolution: Interdependent and Dependent Virtues of Junzi According to Antonio S. Cua, junzi is a paradigmatic individual who sets the tone and quality of the life of ordinary moral agents, and a junzi is a person who embodies ren (humanness, ? ), yi (righteousness, ? ), li (rites, ?). In addition, unlike Ahn or Kim, Cua recognizes that except the basic, interdependent, and cardinal virtues of ren, yi, and li, a junzi also involves particular dependent virtues such as filiality (xiao, ? ), magnanimity (kuan, ? ), trustworthiness (xin, ? ), and courage (yong, ? ). Cua regards these as dependent virtues in the sense that their ethical significance depends on connection with the basic, interdependent, and cardinal virtues; and Antonio S. Cua further stresses that dependent virtues are not subordinate or logical derivatives of the basic virtues. In 14:30, the Master said, â€Å"The way of the superior man is threefold, but I am not equal to it. Virtuous, he is free from anxieties; wise, he is free from perplexities; bold, he is free from fear. † As we interpreted in class that according to Confucius, to become a junzi, one must be morally good, intellectually wise, and psychologically brave. In my point of view, I highly agree with Cua’s claim and I think although Confucius identifies humanness, wisdom, and courage as the superior man’s three core virtues, interdependent virtues and dependent virtues work together to form the junzi. To clarify, Antonio S. Cua borrows Xunzi’s distinction, a Chinese Confucian philosopher who lived during the Warring States Period and contributed to one of the Hundred Schools of Thought, the cardinal virtues ren, yi, and li are generic terms, and dependent virtues such as xiao, kuan, xin, yong are specified terms. In other words, â€Å"specified terms are terms that specify the concrete significance of the cardinal virtues in particular contexts of discourse† (Cua, 2007). To demonstrate further, in the Analects, we could find fragments of Confucius’s remarks that mention both cardinal virtues and dependent virtues in the same contexts. For example, â€Å"There were four things which the Master taught: letters (wen, ? ), ethics (xing, ? ), devotion of soul (zhong, ? ), and truthfulness (xin, ? ). † Confucius, The Analects, 7. 25 And in 14:28 we could find Confucius’s teaching of ren, zhi (wisdom, ? ), and yong (courage, ? ); in 3:19 li and zhong; in 13:4 li, yi, and xin and so on. For heuristic purposes, Cua regards dependent virtues as two different groups: supportive and constitutive virtues. Cua explains that the distinction between are that the former are â€Å"genial or helpful, though not necessary, to the development of the cardinal virtues such as ren, yi, and li;† whereas the latter, are those that are â€Å"both supportive and constitutive of the quality of the cardinal virtues actualized† (Cua, 2007). Also, depending on the character and temperament, a constitutive and supportive virtue varies, that is, what is merely a constitutive attribute in one person may be a supportive merit for another. Thus, Cua believes that Confucius’s idea of the junzi is flexible or adaptable, and I highly agree with him. To sum up, in my point of view, according to Confucius, what qualities a junzi should cultivate, possess, and practice is the unity of virtues that consists of ren, yi, and li as the basic cardinal virtues, and combining with other qualities such as xiao, yong, zhong, xin, kuan, etc. Depending on each different person and situation, the mapping of the virtues of junzi is in the distinction between basic, cardinal, interdependent and dependent, supportive and constitutive virtues, which may be referred to â€Å"the way of the superior man is unityfold. † 7. Conclusion On this paper, I provided background information of the topic; I discussed and dissected two interpretations made by Hosung Ahn and Ha Poong Kim. In response to Ahn’s and Kim’s argument, I have made a personal critique that a junzi is not a tragic person and that a junzi is not required to possess aesthetic awareness. I then offered my resolution along with employing Antonio S. Cua’s interpretation of this topic. In short, by presenting a map of junzi’s virtues that consists of both interdependent and dependent virtues; it reveals that the Confucius’s conception of junzi is a unity of virtues with flexibility. Works Cited Ahn, Hosung. Junzi as a Tragic Person: A Self Psychological Interpretation of the Analects. Pastoral Psychology, 57. 1/2 (2008): 101. Academic Search Premier. EBSCO. Web. 1 Apr. 2012. Confucius (Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy). Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy. Metaphysics Research Lab, CSLI, Stanford University, 3 July 2002. Web. 1 May 2012. Cua, Antonio. Virtues of Junzi. Journal of Chinese Philosophy, 34 (2007): 125. Academic Search Premier. EBSCO. Web. 28 Mar. 2012 Kim, Ha Poong. Confuciuss Aesthetic Concept of Noble Man: Beyond Moralism. Asian Philosophy, 16. 2 (2006): 111. Academic Search Premier. EBSCO. Web. 28 Mar. 2012 Kohut, H (1985). Self psychology and the science of man. In Humanities and self psychology: Reflections on a new psychoanalytic approach (pp. 73-94). New York: Norton. Legge, James. Confucian Analects. In Vol. I of Chinese Classics. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1895. Print. Phan, Cha? nh Co? ng. The Eastern paths to philosophic self-enlightenment: an introduction to Eastern philosophies. Dubuque, Iowa: Kendall/Hunt Pub. Co. , 2002. Print. Shun, K. -L. (2002). Ren ? and li ? in the Analects. In B. W. Van Norden (Ed. ), Confucius and the Analects: New essays (pp.53-72). New York: Oxford University Press. Weber, M. (1968). The religion of China (H. Gerth, Trans. ). New York: Free Press. [ 2 ]. The numbering of the book/chapter of a passage from the Analects follows James Legge’s in his translation of the text (1895). [ 3 ]. The cited phrase comes from The religion of China by Weber, M. [ 4 ]. Ren ? and li ? in the Analect. Confucius and the Analects written by K. Shun, as cited in Hosung Ahn’s article.

The definition of value action gap

The definition of value action gap Value-action Gap The value-action gap is a term used to describe the gap that can occur when the values or attitudes of an individual do not correlate to their actions. More generally, it is the difference between what people say and what people do. This discrepancy is most associated within environmental geography, as usually attitudes affect behavior; however the opposite often seems to be the case with regard to environmental attitudes and behaviors (Blake 1999; Barr 2004). The outcome is that there is a disparity between the value placed on the natural environment and the level of action taken by individuals to counter environmental problems. This has been termed the ‘value-action gap, or occasionally, it is referred to as the ‘attitude-behavior gap (Kollmuss and Agyeman 2002). Debates surrounding the issue of the value-action gap have mainly taken place within environmental and social psychology. Research is often based within cognitive theories of how attitudes are formed and how this affects individuals behavior (Blake 1999). This aims to explain why those with a high regard for environmental issues do not translate this into their behavior. The research suggests that there are many internal and external factors that affect behavior and the reasons behind consumer choices. Therefore, it can be difficult to identify the exact reasons for why this gap exists. When purchasing a product for example, many attributes are assessed when making decisions and these affect the reasons behind buying behavior such as; price, quality, convenience, and brand familiarity (Dickson 2001). Therefore, environmental or ethical considerations are often not taken into account, regardless of attitudes people have regarding the environment. Therefore, it is not a change in attitudes that is required, but a fundamental shift in behavior towards the environment and individuals use of natural resources, to ensure sustainable development and conservation of the environment. The rest of the page will outline the usage of the term in the literature, and examples in various studies. The final part will summarize the key debates surrounding why a value-action gap exists, starting with the most influential. 1. Development of the term: Summary: Theories regarding reasoned action state how attitudes shape and influence behavioral intention, which in term shape actions. The theory of reasoned action states that behavioral intention is dependent on attitudes surrounding that behavior and social norms (Fishbein and Ajzen 1975).   This means that a person acts or behaves in a way that correlates to their attitudes towards that behavior. Therefore, a persons voluntary behavior can be predicted by his/her attitudes and values on that behavior (Kaiser et al 1999). Homer and Kahle (1988) argue that attitudes influence behaviors and therefore values can explain the reasons behind human behavior. However, the opposite appears to be the case for certain actions, especially those related to environmental or ethical actions. In recent decades, public support for environmental protection measures has grown and, according to Barr (2004), there has also been a growing interest in ethical consumption. This has been fuelled by pressure groups, consumer groups, and even businesses (Young et al 2010).Furthermore, increased media coverage of environmental disasters and social problems has also resulted in a heightened concern of such issues. This was given a political boost by the publication of the Stern Review on the Economics of Climate Change (Stern 2006). Therefore, people are more aware of environmental issues, such as global warming or climate change. It is often reported that many people have a high concern for environmental issues and ethical consumption, for example, Dunlap (2002) used survey date which states that 54% of Americans agreed environmental protection was a key priority, even if economic growth was restricted. Furthermore, Banerjee and Solomon (2003) also argue that the general support for Ecolabels and ethical foods is high among the US public. With these studies in mine, it is expected that there would be an increase in pro-environmental behavior, such as recycling, or limiting energy usage (Flynn et al 2010). However, these positive attitudes have not translated into a large increase these behaviors and ethical consumption is still relatively low (Aguiar et al 2009). Thus, attitudes are not always a clear prediction of behavior, resulting in the ‘value-action gap. This is shown within the market share for ethical goods, which is low in comparison to other goods. According to Young et al (2010) the market share of ethical foods is only 5% of total food sales in the UK. Even well known, high-profile ethical products still have a small percentage of the market share. Ronchi (2006) reports that the global sales of Fairtrade were over US$83 million in 2003, yet the total value of Fairtrade sales accounts for little over 0.01% of global trade. Thus, consumers buying behavior does not reflect their positive attitudes towar d ethical products (De Pelsmacker et al 2006). This means that other factors are more significant that values relating to the environment. This environmental value-action gap is of key importance to environmental policy, as it is prevalent across scales, and finding ways to overcome it should increase the effectiveness of policies. 2. Application (Further explanation and examples): Even though many support ethical trade in principle, this is often not taken into consideration as a purchase criterion. Cohen and Murphy (2001) argue that for around 40% of consumers the environmental friendliness of a product will never be a factor in purchasing decisions regardless of positive attitudes towards ethical consumption. There are many studies which support the existence of a value-action gap. Mostly these can be found within the field of environmental geography. Lane and Potter (2007) found a discrepancy between attitudes and behavior regarding the adoption of cleaner vehicles. They reported that concern for the environmental impact of cars did not result in behavioral changes at the individual level. Thus, what consumers reported as their intended actions or concerns often did not translate into their actual behavior. Furthermore, Vermeir and Verbeke (2006) also found that positive consumer attitudes towards sustainability were not consistent with their behavioral patterns. They found that even when attitudes were positive towards sustainable dairy products, intentions to buy these products was low. They also found that peoples perceptions of the availability of sustainable dairy products was low, which might explain why intentions to buy was low.   Additionally, evidence of this gap has been found with organic food as illustrated by Hughner et al (2007) who show that despite 46-67% of the population expressing favorable attitudes for organic food, the actual purchase behavior is only 4-10% of different product ranges. 3. Key debates: The main debates surrounding the issue of the value action gap are described below: Factors that affect behavior: The key issue is why our attitudes often fail to materialize into concrete actions (Barr 2004). There are many factors that lead to an individuals behavior, and therefore it is not just personal values that affect behavior.   Peoples values are not fixed and are negotiated, and sometimes, contradictory. Cognitive factors alone will not adequately explain environmental action (Chung and Leung 2007). The decision-making process is hard to predict as positive attitudes are not followed by positive intentions. Attitudes alone are a poor predictor of intentional behavior as there are many more factors that influence pro-environmental behavior (Kollmuss and Agyeman 2002). In models of behavior, information generates knowledge, which then shapes attitudes, leading to behavior. However, what shapes behavior is a complex process. The result is that attitudes are not necessarily a clear determinant of behavior. Blake (1999) argues that the relationship between attitudes and behaviors is moderated by the structure of personal attitudes themselves; and external or situational constraints. He argues that if attitudes are based on direct experience then they are more likely to be predictors of behavior and behaviors often result from social norms. External or situational constraints refer to restrictions outside the individuals control, such as economic of political factors. Young et al (2010) argue point out that the gap can be due to â€Å"brand strength; culture, finance; habit; lack of information; lifestyles; personalities; or, trading off between different ethical factors† (p22). Moreover, time or convenience can often be the major determinant of consumer behavior, and therefore the value-action gap in understandable for environmental and ethical products. Vermeir and Verbeke (2006) argue that consumers are passive with regard to sustainable consumption, and work within their budget rather than following their values. Furthermore, behavior is often based on habit and therefore values concerning the environment are usually not taken into consideration. People act impulsively and in ways that do not correspond to their declared evaluations and goals (Boulstridge and Carrigan, (2000). Therefore, this can account for the low market share of sustainable products (Minteer et al 2004). There are also many different theories regarding how consumers make decisions. These can be applied to try and explain why there is a value-action gap for some behaviors. For example, microeconomic theory (consumer theory) states that, â€Å"humans make decisions that maximize their utility† (Sammer and Wà ¼stenhagen 2006:188). Therefore, if buying ethical or environmental products does not maximize their utility then they will not purchase them, regardless of their attitudes towards these issues. Making these decisions requires a comparison of the costs and benefits of alternative actions, rather than about certain values, within their budgetary constraint. This means other factors, such as price or quality, are still more important. Moreover, Chatzidakis et al (2007) argue that consumers use neutralization techniques to justify pursuing their more selfish goals instead of purchasing environmental friendly or ethical products. Therefore, environmental values are usually less dominant in the decision-making. Thus, the main motivations for actions are self-interest rather than altruistic (McEachern and McClean 2002). Therefore, Ajzen and Fishbein (1975) point out that in order to find a high correlation between values and actions, the researcher has to measure the attitude toward that particular behavior. (The factors involved in making people willing to reduce environmental damage are fundamentally different from the factors involved in making people take active steps to reduce damage and to improve the environment.) Information deficit: One key explanation for the discrepancy between attitudes and buying behavior is the lack of information on certain issues (Dickson 2000). This is considered a significant barrier to ethical behavior. The most effective means to overcome the value-action gap is to translate environmental concern into pro-environmental behavior. Many argue this can be achieved by increasing information. Blake (1999) identifies that the core assumption regarding the value-action gap is that the main barrier between environmental concern and action is the lack of appropriate information. Eden (1996) argues that polices fail to understand the gap between information and action. She argues that understanding of issues creates awareness and it is this understanding that is the cause of behavior.   Hence, it is often considered that one of the most effective ways to encourage pro-environmental behavior is to highlight important facts around the issues. Environmental education is one way in which these environmental messages can be delivered, and therefore filling the value-action gap with information should help to change public behaviors (Gale 2008, Burgess et al., 1998). Furthermore, Owens (2000: 1142) argues that â€Å"if people had more information about environmental risks, they would become more virtuous†. Traditional thinking supported this idea that increased knowledge tended to encourage favorable attitudes which, in turn, lead to pro-environmental action. Burgess et al (1998) called this the ‘information deficit model. Many Non-governmental Organizations (NGOs) still base their campaigns around increasing awareness, on the assumption that this will led to action (Kollmuss and Agyeman 2002). Some argue that to increase environmental action there needs to be educational marketing campaigns on the ethical and environmental issues to change peoples attitudes towards these issues, and thus change their behavior (McEachern and McClean 2002). Many environmental policies are based around this ‘information deficit model as policy-makers assume that environmental education will lead people to act in order to meet policy objectives (Blake 1999). Owens (2000) points out that governments often aim to encourage action by increasing awareness and knowledge about certain issues. For ex ample the UK governments ‘Are You Doing Your Bit? campaign which was launched in 1998 aimed to develop public understanding of sustainable development, and thus, to encourage a change in behavior of individuals. However, the effect of increasing information on behavioral change is debatable. Different people will respond and interpret the same environmental information in various ways and sometimes it is interpreted in an opposite way to what is expected (Myers Macnaghten, 1998). Barr and Gilg (2002) argue that just increasing information will not lead to a behavior change that would close this gap, and information-intensive campaigns are likely to be unproductive. Due to the increased media attention surrounding environmental issues, and products such as Fairtrade having a high profile, it could be argued that there is already a lot of information on these issues, and it is considered that in the West, general awareness on environmental issues is high (Thornton 2009). Sammer and Wà ¼stenhagen (2006) point out that while people may be aware of ethical and environmental issues, this does not necessarily mean that it plays a major role in their actions. The result is that overall environmentally responsible behavior is low. These findings suggest that the value-action gap cannot be overcome simply by using an information deficit model of individual participation. Increasing information does not itself guarantee action at the individual level and information campaigns around raising awareness are not are effective as some may suppose (Jackson 2005). Even if values are high few people take environmental actions which involve changes to their lifestyle and often environmental actions that are taken are unrelated to particular concerns an individual may have.   This relates to broader issues surrounding methods of environmental governance. The value-action gap can be considered evidence against the use of non-state market driven (NSMD) form of governance which rely on consumers to create change.   If our attitudes are not translating into behavior then these methods are essentially flawed. This would suggest that other methods are more appropriate to encourage environmental action, such as regulation and economic incentives (taxes and grants)   (Retallack et al 2007) Attempts by government to affect public behavior have traditionally been based on providing knowledge through big publicity campaigns and changing behavior through Barriers to behavior: It is widely considered that there are many other barriers, besides a lack of information, which inhibit ethical behavior causing a value-action gap to exist. Numerous barriers can constrain motivations for action. Jackson (2005) uses the concept of ‘bounded rationality to explain how, even when individuals are pursuing utility, their decision making processes are ‘bounded by psychological and environmental constraints. Blake (1999) points out that various models of behavior are flawed in that they fail to take into consideration the social, individual and institutional constraints. Various conditions, institutions and personal day-to-day responsibilities constrain actions that can be regarded as ethical (Myers Macnaghten, 1998). Thus the cause of the value-action gap can be explained in terms of personal, social and structural barriers to action. Blake identifies that this gap is filled with barriers that block the progress from values to action. In his model, action is blocked by many factors intruding into the process, rather than just a lack of information. Moreover, barriers often overlap and are combined which limits behavioral change. Blake (1999) identifies three different categories of obstacles that exist between the sphere of concern and that of action: individuality; responsibility and practicality. However, which factors are important will vary for different individuals and environmental actions. * Individual barriers refer to environmental concerns being outweighed by other conflicting attitudes. People may perceive themselves as the wrong type of person to carry out ethical actions. * Responsibility barriers refers to the idea that people may not act despite supporting environmental action, because they believe it is not their responsibility to help solve environmental problems. Jackson (2005) identifies that the acceptance of personal responsibility for ones actions and an awareness of their consequences is the basis for the intention to perform a pro-environmental or pro-social behavior. ( Lack of trust) * Finally, practical constraints prevent people from adopting pro-environmental action, regardless of their attitudes or intentions. These include lack of time, money, physical storage space (in the case of recycling), as well as lack of information, encouragement and pro-environmental facilities such as recycling and adequate public transport provision. Some people may also be physically unable to carry out some environmental actions. There will be some overlaps between different barriers and the reasons why people do not engage in pro-environmental action. Therefore, Blake argues that policies need to tackle these barriers, not just provide more information or recycling facilities. Retallack et al (2007) also identifies other barriers such as uncertainty, skepticism about the issue and distrust of national governments and organizations. organizations that are trusted more by the public, such as environmental NGOs, are likely to be most successful. Attitude-Behaviour-Constraint (ABC) Model of Paul Stern (2000) Market-based mechanisms. Solutions: Criticism: * 4 See also Attitudes, behavior, cognitive psychology, social psychology, theory of planned behavior, social marketing Commentary: I chose this topic because the gap between attitudes and behaviors is something that really interests me.   I find it interesting that people can have values on something but then not act upon them. This is something I wanted to explore further, and try to tease out what the barriers to action were, leading to a value-action gap. The term value-action gap did not have a page so   I thought it was appropriate to create one, furthermore there is very little on the whole of Wikipedia on this topic as other key terms, such as the ‘information-deficit model did not have a page. However, this also made it more difficult writing my own page as I could not hyperlink these terms, meaning I had to add more explanation. I created the page by adding a short summary on the value-action gap, then going into a more detailed explanation of the term. The article then goes on to explore some of the key debates surrounding the issue. Both for and against arguments are explored in order to maintain neutrality to the page. Therefore, writing neutral while still being critical.   I followed the structure of other pages relating to environmental geography to ensure coherence within Wikipedia. The three schools of thought start with the earliest/most influential. In comparison to the length of other essays written this year, I found this assignment difficult due to the limited space allocated to explore the topic. This meant that some points were not as detailed as I would have liked and there were other points I would have liked to have included.   Therefore, I chose to narrow to page down to a few detailed points and focus on a specific topic. I wanted to ensure the individual sections were not too long as on Wikipedia many articles are split into quite small sections. Also due to the layout of the website, even 500 words can look like a lot. The phrase ‘value-action gap is rarely a topic itself in the literature, therefore writing a neutral page explaining the term was difficult. I wanted to make sure that anyone could understand it, even if they had to prior knowledge to environmental issues. The idea of the value-action gap is also something that can potentially affect everyone, and therefore I thought it would be a good topic for Wikipedia, as anyone can understand and relate to the issues in hand. I also purposely used clear and concise language to ensure anyone; especially people without academic knowledge could also understand the topic. Reflection on the feedback from the last assignment was to include lots of information and academic resources.   To ensure a clear structure and identify the key characteristics. This is because it is also important to show the theoretical side. The changes represent a broader theoretical perspective that hopefully others will find useful. Moreover, certain words have been linked to other Wikipedia pages, such as ‘network governance so I dont have to go into more depth on definitions of phrases, and readers can choose to further explore these terms. It was also interesting to write for an audience and exciting to know that if a Google search is done for the term, then something I have written will be one of the first articles. Tried to remember the audience is potentially global. What I have learnt about Wikipedia in general is that it can often be a very useful source of knowledge, especially for background information on a topic. Many of the pages are actually quite long and packed with sources and information, which means the reader can usually gain a good overview of the topic. Therefore, a number of entries are a lot more academic than some may suppose. This suggests that Wikipedia is more reliable than most realise as many of the pages are written by academics. Furthermore, something I did not realize was how well the site is analyzed and checked by many members, which ensure that false information cannot be put up. Made me realise how many more pages still need to be created. the ‘Value Action Gap. It basically describes those situations where a person holds values that are inconsistent with their behaviour. Its particularly evident in peoples attitudes towards the environment- we have the knowledge but when it comes to actually doing something about it, other factors take greater presidence e.g. economic. Smoking†¦ The value-action gap is a term used in environmental geography. It describes the gap between the high value of the environment and seriousness of the problem of damaging it, and the relatively low level of action taken by the population to counter the problem. It is often agreed that there are numerous barriers of motivation for individual and collective environmental action, and that the factors involved in making people willing to reduce environmental damage are fundamentally different from the factors involved in making people actually take active steps to reduce damage and to improve the environment[1]. It is therefore argued that a fundamental shift in the attitudes held by individual citizens towards the environment and their use of natural resources is needed to ensure sustainable development.